Managing Individual Behavior: The Psychological contract is the overall set of expectations held by an individual with respect to what he or she will contribute to the organization and what the organization will provide in return. Each individual has the effort, skills, ability, time, and loyalty to contribute to an organization that pays and has career opportunities (tangible rewards)/job status and security (intangible rewards).
Major personality constructs of interest:
- Agreeableness-person’s ability to get along with others
- Conscientiousness-most consistent personality to leadership effectiveness; a number of goals on which a person focuses
- Negative Emotionality/Stability-the extent to which a person is poised calm, resilient, and secure
- Extraversion-a person’s comfort level with relationships
- Openness-A person’s rigidity of beliefs and range of interests
Components of an attitude:
An Affective component reflects the feelings and emotions an individual has toward a situation. The Cognitive component is derived from perceived knowledge. The behavioral intentional component is how a person expects to behave in a given situation.
Work-Related Interests:
The attitude that reflects the extent to which an individual is gratified or fulfilled by his or her work is job satisfaction.; influenced by a personal, group, and organizational factors; high levels of job satisfaction don’t always lead to high job performance. Most people are dissatisfied when absent from work more often, experience stress, which disrupts coworkers, and are continually looking for another job. Satisfied workers are absent from work less often, makes positive contributions, and stay with the organization
Organizational Commitment is the attitude that reflects an individual’s identification with an attachment to an organization itself. A person with a high level of reward themselves as true members of the organization, overlook minor sources of dissatisfaction, see themselves as remaining a member of the organization. A person with a low level sees themselves as outsiders, express more dissatisfaction about things, and don’t see themselves as long-term members of the organization.
Emotional Intelligence is the extent to which people are self-aware, or having the capacity for being aware of how they are feeling by tuning into one’s emotions. A person can manage their emotions to balance anxiety, fear, and anger so that they do not overly interfere with getting things accomplished. They can motivate themselves and remain optimistic to continue striving in the face of setbacks, barriers, and failures with explanatory style. People express empathy to understand how others are feeling and possess social skills to get along with others and to establish positive relationships High EQ perform better on jobs that require interaction and directing others; can be developed and not biologically biased.
Causes of stress can be related inside and outside of the workplace. Task demands are quick decisions, incomplete information for decisions, and critical decisions or the task itself. Physical demands such as temperature extremes, poorly designed offices, and threats to health can be associated with the job setting. Your role demand in the areas of role conflict, role ambiguity, a set of expected behaviors associated with a position in a group or organization. Finally, interpersonal demands on group pressures, leadership styles, and conflicting personalities; stressors associated with relationships that confront people in organizations
The consequences of stress can create negative Personal Behavioral through smoking, alcoholism, overeating, and drug abuse. They can create physiological-sleep disturbances, depression. They can also create a medical problem such as heart disease, stroke, backaches, ulcers, and skin conditions. Finally, they can create negative work related to poor quality work output and lower productivity, faulty decisions and disrupted relationships, withdrawal through indifference and absenteeism, irritation and difficulty in getting along, job dissatisfaction, low morale, and a lack of commitment
A Type A Personality is extremely competitive, very devoted to work, and has a strong sense of time urgency, is impatient and can be easily hostile or angry towards people.
Motivation
Motivation is the willingness to exert high levels of effort toward organizational goals, conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual need. “Effort” is a measure of intensity, organizational goals, and need. It is some internal state that makes certain outcomes appear attractive and is the set of forces that cause people to behave in certain ways
Needs theory states that we have basic needs and wants to be satisfied. There can be a need or deficiency depended upon a person be more motivated in a deficient state. Humans search for ways to satisfy the need and have a choice of behavior to satisfy a need. After an evaluation of need satisfaction, the determination of future needs and search/choice for satisfaction.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
- Self-actualization-realizing one’s potential for continued growth and individual development; achievement and a challenging job; “Be all that you can be”
- Esteem is the need for a positive self-image and self-respect, and the need for recognition and respect from others; status and job title
- Love (Social Needs)-social processes; friendship and Friends at work
- Safety and Security-secure physical and emotional environment; pension plan and stability
- Physiological-food, sex, and air, which represent basic issues of survival and biological function, base salary
Herzberg-people’s satisfaction and dissatisfaction are influenced by two independent sets of factors-motivation factors and hygiene factors. Both are on two distinct continuums. The motivation satisfaction is accomplished by Achievement, recognition, the work itself, responsibility, advancement, and growth; specifically related to work content. The Hygiene Dissatisfaction is accomplished by supervisors, working conditions, interpersonal relations, pay and security, company policies and administration; related to work environment
McClelland
There are many needs that a person has. This includes the need for achievement or the desire to accomplish a goal or task more effectively than in the past; similar to agreeableness in management; curvier relationship curve. There is a need for affiliation or the desire for human companionship and acceptance. Finally, there is a need for power or the desire to be influential in a group and be in control of one’s environment.
Adam’s theory of inequity focuses on individual feelings of treatment in comparison with others. The inputs are what you bring to job (skills, efforts, attitudes, and beliefs) Outcomes, Weights, Comparative Others-someone who sees how we are doing (Ex: Co-worker), Input/Outcome ratio, Consequences of inequity
Person Comparative Other
Inputs
Outcomes
Expectancy theories of motivation assume people are motivated to work when they expect to be able to achieve. Combination of forces determines behavior, individuals decide their behavior, individuals have different needs, and goals, decide among alternatives whether behavior leads to desired outcomes; motivation depends on how much we want something and how likely we think we are to get it. Our efforts are expectancies perceived effort-performance, profitability.
If you put in work you can get the outcome. The First level of outcome: performance; instrumentality-perceived performance-reward profitability (What you need for an A) If you do performance: Boss’s character, feedback, and integrity. The second level outcome is positive and negative; valence-how much an individual value a particular outcome: perceived value of rewards (Keeping/Getting Hope). Management uses motivation to affect employee’s performance and outcome.
Locke & Latham’s Goals Model:
Challenge: Goal difficulty is the extent to which a goal is challenging and requires effort; more motivational, Goal Clarity is specificity and precision of the goal or Self-efficacy.
- Moderators: ability, goal commitment is the extent to which she or he is personally interested in reaching the goal, feedback, task complexity; explains difference in effects of one variable on another (under what conditions are we going to see a stronger relationship between setting and performance; need ability and able to buy into goal
- Mediators: Directions, effort, persistence in face of obstacles; cause of mechanism and why/How do we improve performance; directs you what to do and gives you strategies; increased efforts
- Performance
- Rewards-performance is defined, evaluated, and rewarded; merit pay and incentive plans; Gain-sharing programs and Scanlon plan
- Consequences-punishment
Leadership
Task-related behaviors of leader are that they adapt to demands of the situation, sets direction, sets high-performance standards, takes risks, scans and interprets environment (SWOT), provides frequent feedback, performs consistently, and focuses on needs of customers.
Relationship-oriented behaviors of leaders are that they align people with goals, mobilize people to achieve performance standards, builds synergy among people, inspires, enables the satisfaction of higher-order needs, provides meaning for people, encourages and supports, promotes principles and values.
Contributions of Fiedler’s Contingency Theory proposes that effective group performance depends upon the proper match between the leader’s style of interacting with followers and the degree to which the situation allows the leader to control and influence. Assumes a certain leadership style should be most effective in different types of situations, leaders do not readily changer leadership styles-matching the leader to the situation or changing the situation to make it favorable to the leader is required; assumers style and personality
Least-preferred co-worker (LPC) Questionnaire determines leadership style be measuring responses to 18 contrasting adjectives High score is a relationship-oriented leadership style; choose employee least wanting to work. Situational factors in matching leader to the situation: leader-member relations-flexibility/level of cohesiveness and sense of the quality of relationships in teams, favorableness and style of leader, task structure-degree to which the group’s task is well defined/structured, and position power-power vested in the leader’s position to punish and reward. Right match between leader and orientation (Once we have a preference, we are stuck with it).
Situational Leadership theory argues that successful leadership is achieved by selecting the right leadership style, which is contingent on the level of the follower’s readiness; when you use selling; based on relationship and task behavior, but the level to which you focus on should depend on follower’s readiness to be influenced by you as an employee, Manager dictates but you can choose which one.
Acceptance: leadership effectiveness depends on whether followers accept or reject a leader
Readiness: the extent to which followers have the ability and willingness to accomplish a specific task
Leaders must relinquish control over and contact with followers as they become more competent
Style to readiness:
- Delegating-don’t micromanage; able and willing=Expertise
- A participating-increase relationship, decrease task; able and unwilling=Thorns Ex: Older employees
- Selling-Increase task, increase relationship, goal setting; unable and willing=doesn’t name skill level (competence) Ex: New Grads
Telling –high task, decrease relationship; unable and unwilling=bad hiring, change in what the company is doing
House’s path-goal theory states the primary functions of a leader are to make valued or desired rewards available in the workplace and to clarify for the subordinate the kinds of behavior that will lead to those rewards. Leader’s job is to assist his or her followers in attaining their goals and to provide direction or support to ensure their goals are compatible with organizational goals. Leaders assume different leadership styles at different times depending on the situation: directive leader, supportive leader, participative leader, and achievement-oriented leader
Implications for leaders can cause Highly routine tasks/supportive styles, Unstructured tasks/directive style, unstructured tasks w/ needs for esteem, actualization/participation style, Employees who have discretion over what, when and how of performing a task/Achievement-oriented style
Environmental characteristics: Task structure-Fielder and workgroup/Workgroup
Personal characteristics: Perceived ability and locus of control
Directive leader-lets subordinates know what is expected of them, gives guidance and direction, and schedules work.
A Supportive leader is friendly and approachable, showing concern for subordinate welfare, and treating members as equals. A Participative leader is consulting with subordinates, soliciting suggestions, and allowing participation in decision-making. An Achievement-oriented leader is setting challenging goals, expecting subordinates to perform at high levels, encouraging subordinates, and showing confidence in subordinates’ abilities.
Decision-Making Styles:
- Decide-the manager makes the decision alone a then announces or “sells” it to the group
- Consult (Individually)I-manager presents the program to group members individually, obtains their suggestions, and the makes the decision
- Consult (Group)-the manager presents the problem to group members at a meeting, gets their suggestions, and then makes the decision
- Facilitate-the manager presents the problem to the group at a meeting, defines the problem and its boundaries, and then facilitates group member discussion as they make the decision
- Delegate-the manager allows the group to define for itself the exact nature and parameters of the problem and then to develop a solution
Transactional
The Leader is concerned with tasks and people. Commitment is achieved via involvement. The leader deals with problems by solving them and the leader’s plans are short range. The leader forgoes relationships that are steady, based on defined roles.
Transformational leadership: goes beyond ordinary expectations by transmitting a sense of mission, stimulating learning experiences, and inspiring new ways of thinking; inspires people to achieve
The leader is concerned with ideas and vision. Commitment is achieved via inspiration. The leader deals with problems by discovering them. The leader’s plans are long range. The leader forges relationships that are intuitive, empathetic, and dynamic.
- Idealized influence-charisma; followers identify with these leaders and want to emulate them. Leaders have high standards of conduct and do the right thing. Build trust
- Inspirational Motivation-Inspire; others to become committed to the shared vision; Inspire followers to shed self-interest for the greater good
- Intellectual Stimulation-stimulates followers to be creative and innovative; to challenge own beliefs and values
- Individualized Situation-Creates supportive climate; listens carefully to individual needs of followers
Substitutes for Leadership:
Follower characteristics are the ability, experience, training, professional orientation, or the need for independence, and indifference toward organizational rewards. Are your job characteristics routine, unambiguous, and satisfying jobs? Finally, organization characteristics can explicit formalized goals, rigid rules and procedures, or cohesive work groups, inflexibility